Blog: Tag: military-connected students

Supporting Military-Connected Students in Schools: A Framework for Success

Published on April 11, 2025
Learning, question and hands raised with girl in classroom for education, discussion and knowledge. Help, studying and teacher with children and woman at school for why, scholarship and answer

Most educators agree that supporting military-connected students is important. However, even with an available and growing collection of tips, toolkits, and resources, these efforts can lose momentum and/or lack cohesion over time. Schools often face challenges sustaining change, particularly when supports are not embedded into systems or reinforced through structured planning. For schools that are committed to making meaningful, lasting improvements, applying a research-based change model may offer the direction needed to translate intention into impact.

The Lippitt-Knoster Model for Managing Complex Change offers a framework that is grounded in organizational change theory. It identifies six key components necessary for successful and sustainable change: vision, consensus, skills, incentives, resources, and an action plan. When applied intentionally, these elements can help schools build an environment where military-connected students are consistently and effectively supported.

Why Supporting Military-Connected Students Matters

Military-connected students do not just attend schools located near installations. They are present in nearly every state and in many communities due to a variety of reasons, such as a parent’s retirement, a temporary relocation during a parent’s deployment, or a parent’s service in the National Guard or Reserves. These students often face challenging experiences such as school transitions, caregiver changes, and parental absences. Such changes can interfere with students’ academic continuity, social development, and emotional well-being. While these experiences are common among military-connected students, they are not exclusive to them. Many students face instability, separation from family members, or unexpected life changes. This overlap underscores the broader value of designing systems that intentionally support military-connected students. Doing so can lead to stronger practices that benefit all students as they navigate uncertainty.

Vision: Establishing a Clear Purpose

Developing and using a vision, which can include long- and short-term goals and/or guidance for strategic decision-making, provide the foundation for all coordinated school-based efforts. Establishing and adhering to a clearly articulated vision for supporting military-connected students can help ensure strategies are aligned with school-wide goals and frameworks, such as Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS). Vision, within the educational system, might include a commitment to identifying military-connected students upon enrollment, developing protocols for supporting transitions, or ensuring access to academic and mental health resources. Anchoring this work in the broader mission of the school promotes integration rather than isolation of military-connected initiatives.

Resource Spotlight: Mitigating the Impact of School Mobility: An Effective Practices Model and Guide for Educators by the Center for Public Research and Leadership at Columbia University helps schools establish a clear and actionable vision for supporting military-connected students. Rooted in research and developed through collaboration with educators nationwide, this guide outlines the academic and socioemotional risks of school mobility and introduces a comprehensive Mobility Mitigation Model. The model provides a systemic approach to school transitions by offering structured strategies across all phases—from pre-move planning to post-enrollment support. The guide includes adaptable tools, self-assessment rubrics, and a theory of action, and using these instruments can help school leaders embed military-connected supports into their broader mission. This resource could be important for schools that intend to move from fragmented practices to a unified, sustainable vision of support.

Consensus: Building a Supportive School Culture

Sustainable change requires buy-in from all stakeholders. Consensus ensures that educators, administrators, and school staff are aware of the vision and understand their role in advancing it. One evidence-informed method for building consensus is data storytelling. When schools use local data to contextualize the needs of military-connected students—such as differences in attendance, discipline referrals, or academic outcomes—they can generate urgency and foster empathy. Framing these data within the broader narrative of student success helps align stakeholder priorities and reinforces a shared purpose.

Resource Spotlight: Edutopia’s guide to consensus-building strategies for school leaders provides tools school leaders can use to engage diverse audiences in meaningful decision-making. These strategies are directly aligned with the Lippitt-Knoster element of consensus and offer practical techniques for presenting school data in compelling ways and for developing a shared understanding among staff and stakeholders.

Skills: Equipping Educators with the Right Tools

Without adequate training, staff may feel ill-prepared to support military-connected students. The Lippitt-Knoster Model emphasizes that skill gaps can lead to anxiety or confusion and can, ultimately, undermine implementation. Professional learning opportunities for educators should focus on the following: building awareness of military culture, understanding the common challenges faced by military families, and equipping staff to respond with evidence-based strategies. Training should be embedded in ongoing professional development cycles, and it should not be offered as one-time events in order to support capacity building and sustainability.

Resource Spotlight: The Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness at Penn State (Clearinghouse) offers a series of training modules on supporting military-connected students. These modules include evidence-informed practices and frameworks that build educator capacity and address knowledge gaps around military culture and effective school-based interventions. This resource directly supports the development of skills necessary to implement and maintain effective programming for all students, especially military-connected students.

Incentives: Encouraging Buy-In

For change to be sustained, individuals must perceive value in their participation. Incentives, as conceptualized in the model, do not need to be monetary. Recognizing staff who demonstrate excellence in supporting military-connected students, celebrating student successes, or using data to highlight improvements are all ways to reinforce engagement. When educators see that their efforts produce tangible results, whether through improved student outcomes or a more inclusive school culture, they are more likely to continue investing their time, expertise, and energy.

Resource Spotlight: A recent professional learning literature review conducted by the Clearinghouse explores what educators report motivates them to engage in military-connected training. This resource helps school leaders understand what types of supports are valued by staff and how to structure professional development in ways that foster continued buy-in, which is key to sustaining momentum and investment.

Resources: Providing Support Systems

Change cannot be sustained without access to resources, even if a school has a strong vision and a motivated team. These resources include tools for identification, access to training, time for collaboration, and evidence-based intervention materials. The absence of these resources can result in educator frustration and failed implementation. Schools that integrate high-quality supports are better positioned to meet the diverse needs of military-connected students.

Resource Spotlight: The blog post Educators Can Use Existing Initiatives to Support Military-Connected Students from the Clearinghouse offers real-world insights into the daily challenges military-connected students face and examines how educators can help. Drawing from the SPEAK Military Children project, the post outlines four key initiatives that support school transitions: Advance Enrollment, the Interstate Compact, the Military Student Identifier, and the Purple Star School Program. Through research and interviews across all 50 states and the District of Columbia, the project revealed promising outcomes such as reduced family stress and improved student belonging, but it also highlighted implementation gaps and barriers. The blog encourages school personnel to understand how these initiatives work in their own state and to actively help families navigate them.

Action Plan: Implementing Sustainable Strategies

A strong action plan turns vision into practice. This plan should outline specific goals, timelines, and accountability structures. Teams should meet regularly to monitor progress, troubleshoot barriers, and make course corrections as needed. Embedding this plan into existing systems can reduce redundancy and increase sustainability.

Resource Spotlight: The Month of the Military Child Toolkit for Schools, developed by the White House’s Joining Forces initiative in collaboration with the Departments of Defense, Education, and Veterans Affairs, is a comprehensive planning resource that helps schools turn intention into action. Designed to raise awareness and foster school-wide engagement, the toolkit includes ready-to-use classroom activities, school-wide event ideas, and sample messaging to support military-connected students throughout April (Month of the Military Child) and beyond. With options tailored for all grade levels, it also highlights strategies for building community, honoring service, and supporting military-connected students as they face unique challenges such as caregiving changes or frequent relocation. Schools can use the toolkit to scaffold a sustainable action plan aligned with their goals and available resources.

Summary: Using the Lippitt-Knoster Model to Create Lasting Change for Military-Connected Students

When schools apply the Lippitt-Knoster Model as a framework for supporting military-connected students, they are better equipped to move from fragmented efforts to a coherent system of support. By attending to vision, consensus, skills, incentives, resources, and action planning, schools can foster environments where military-connected students and all students can learn to navigate transitions, overcome adversity, and thrive.

For additional evidence-informed strategies, tools, and implementation supports, visit the School Resources website from the Clearinghouse.

 

Educators Can Use Existing Initiatives to Support Military-Connected Students

Published on April 7, 2025
Male teacher squatting down and smiling next to young male student in a classroom.

Did you know the 3rd grader with the military parent who is acting out in your class was in gifted programming at his old school and is acting out because he is bored? Did you know that the 11th grader in your French 1 class is in a bad mood, not because she has an attitude problem, but because your school does not offer the foreign language that she took for 2 years at her last school? What about the girl who transferred in a month after school started? Have you noticed that she keeps a positive attitude despite missing cheer tryouts this year because, by the time her family moved to your school, tryouts were over, and the season had started?

States have made great strides in the last 15 years in their understanding and support of military-connected students. However, a lot of variability exists regarding how supports are implemented in different states and different schools. The Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness at Penn State (Clearinghouse) gained this insight through its work on the SPEAK Military Children project, funded by the Department of Defense’s Defense-State Liaison Office. This project looked at the implementation of four initiatives across all 50 states and the District of Columbia.

  • Advance Enrollment – Allows military families to enroll their children in schools based on military orders rather than proof of residency.
  • Interstate Compact on Educational Opportunity for Military Children – Addresses challenges related to school transitions, such as credit transfers, graduation requirements, and extra-curricular activities.
  • Military Student Identifier – A federally mandated data point that asks families in public schools about their military status.
  • Purple Star Schools Program – Recognizes schools that implement military-friendly policies and programs.

Clearinghouse scientists conducted this project in three phases: (1) a review of the literature related to military-connected students; (2) an analysis of state-level laws and regulations related to the four initiatives; and (3) interviews with national-, state-, and local-level stakeholders, including school personnel, military parents, and installation personnel.

Participants report a variety of positive outcomes related to the four initiatives. These outcomes include less stress on families, increased extra-curricular participation, better-prepared schools, more on-time graduations, increased feelings of belonging, and increased opportunities for military-connected students. These factors are important for family well-being, which impacts Service members’ mission readiness.

However, we also found differences across states in laws and regulations related to the initiatives. Furthermore, participants discussed barriers such as inconsistent policy implementation, lack of awareness among school personnel and parents, and variations in compliance with the laws and regulations.

School personnel have an important role to play in helping military-connected students and their parents navigate the four initiatives. You can help military families by doing the following:

  • Find out which initiatives are available in your state.
  • Understand how the initiatives are implemented in your state and how their implementation may be different from other states.
  • Help families understand how the initiatives are implemented in your state and in your school.
  • Understand that, even if your state has the initiative, families may be coming from a state that did not have the initiative or from a state that implements the initiative differently.

Many states have implemented the four initiatives, and many states and schools share the goal of supporting miliary-connected students. With continued support from policymakers and school personnel, military-connected students can successfully adapt to their new school environment and thrive. If you would like additional information on how you can support military-connected students, the School Resources to Support Military-Connected Students website offers several free training modules.

More information on the literature regarding miliary-connected students’ educational success, the laws and regulations related to the four initiatives in each state, and people’s experiences with local implementation is available on the project webpage.

Jennifer Karre, Ph.D., is a research and evaluation scientist at the Clearinghouse. In this role, she has been evaluating programs and policies for nearly 15 years. She was the project lead for the SPEAK Military Children project.

Supporting Military-Connected Students: Why It Benefits All Students

Published on April 1, 2025
American soldier in his uniform holding his daughter who is wearing a purple sweater.

April is the Month of the Military Child. This designation provides an opportunity for individuals, within the military sector and within the civilian sector, to recognize the resilience and learn about the experiences and sacrifices of military children and their families. This can also be a time to focus on military-connected students within your school. Military-connected students often face unique challenges, such as coping with parental deployments, changing structures at home, and adapting to new educational and social circumstances due to frequent relocations. Military students are also among the most resilient students since they are able to rely on a supportive community, develop and sustain a strong sense of belonging, and experience many opportunities to try new activities and take on new responsibilities (Easterbrooks et al., 2013). Educators play an important role in creating an environment that supports military-connected students as they navigate these challenges.

Understanding the Unique Challenges of Military-Connected Students

Military children navigate distinct experiences that shape their educational and social journeys. Some key challenges include the following:

  • Frequent Moves – These students may change schools often as their parents are deployed or change duty stations. These changes require them to adjust to new academic expectations, curricula, and social groups.
  • Cultural and Social Transitions – Students moving between different schools, states, and countries may face challenges in adapting to new norms and making friends. They may experience stress due to a lack of stability and predictability.
  • Parental Deployments – Having a deployed parent can create emotional stress, uncertainty, and changing roles at home, and these situations may impact a student’s well-being and academic performance. Additionally, the consequences of deployment, including parental injury and death, can be traumatic for students.

Why Supporting Military-Connected Students Benefits Everyone

While these challenges are unique to military-connected students, many other students also experience family separations, transitions, or emotional stress. For example, not all students will experience a parental deployment, but they may experience long parent work trips, parental incarceration, divorce, serious parental illness, or parental death. By deeply understanding the unique needs of military-connected students, you can implement supports that can be utilized by military-connected and civilian students and help create social connections and improved access to learning for all students.

Best Practices for Creating an Inclusive Learning Environment

Educators can take actionable steps to support military students and enhance school culture by doing the following:

  1. Build welcoming classroom environments. Greeting students, creating a consistent daily schedule so that students always know what to do and expect, and allowing students some group work or social time to make connections can help support a sense of belonging.
  2. Support academic transitions. When receiving new students, provide academic and social supports. Schools can create processes to streamline enrollment and collect information about new students. Consider creating a student welcoming task force in which students can volunteer to explain school rules, give tours, and provide early social interaction.
  3. Make emotional supports accessible. Students should be aware of responsive services such as school counseling and school-based therapy and mental health-related initiatives, such as peer mentoring, student assistance programs, and group counseling opportunities. All students should know when to ask for help and who to go to for help.
  4. Recognize and celebrate many kinds of events. Schools can recognize and promote learning about military-connected students by participating in events centered around military students, such as Purple Up Day (Wednesday, April 9 this year). Schools can also observe a variety of different holidays related to other types of students who may be represented in your student population. Learning about other students’ experiences can help all students (and teachers) build empathy and social connections.

Military-connected students do face unique challenges, but their underlying needs can often be addressed by using strategies that can help support all students. By creating inclusive and understanding schools, educators can help every student, regardless of background, feel valued and supported.

Take Action: Explore More Resources

For more specific information on understanding military culture and best practices for supporting military-connected students, check out the Military-Connected Students modules on the School Resources website.

Reference(s):

Easterbrooks, M. A., Ginsburg, K., & Lerner, R. M. (2013). Resilience among military youth. The Future of Children, 23(2), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2013.0014

Fenning, P. (2021). School supports for students in military families. The Guilford Press.

Reinforcing Gratitude and Mindfulness with SEL Skills in Schools

Published on November 12, 2024
Photo of young adult smiling up at the sky with eyes closed.

Imagine you’re sitting at the dining room table with your family members. Quick, name something you’re thankful for that no one else at the table has said yet! It’s almost Thanksgiving, which means it’s time to get thoughtful and creative about what’s going right for you. Thinking about what we are grateful for can be good for making your grandmother cry happy tears at the dinner table, but it can also be an exercise in mindfulness and gratitude.

Practicing Gratitude and Mindfulness This Thanksgiving

Mindfulness is the practice of bringing one’s attention to the present moment in an accepting way. Practicing mindfulness can involve noticing one’s thoughts, feelings, or surroundings, and it involves one allowing their thoughts and sensations to drift into and out of their awareness without being distracted by them, judging them, or reacting to them. With practice, engaging in mindfulness can help an individual stay present, be less impulsive, and reduce their stress. For school personnel, specifically, using mindfulness is associated with having lower levels of job stress and lower rates of burnout and alleviating their depression and anxiety symptoms (Braun et al., 2019).

Three Mindful Practices for the Busy Season

  • Mindful Eating: Take time to really notice the flavor, texture, and smells of your food without distractions.
  • Attentive Listening: During conversations with family and friends, practice listening attentively and nonjudgmentally to what’s being said right now. Try not to plan what you’ll say next or think about the “baggage” others may bring to the conversation.
  • Appreciate nature: Getting outside and noticing the change of the seasons can be good ways to practice mindfulness and grounding. Notice the sounds, colors, and smells that surround you.

The Importance of Gratitude for Mental Health

Gratitude can also be a helpful tool that you can use to improve your mental health. The Greater Good Science Center at the University of California (Berkeley) reports that engaging in gratitude practices is associated with several improved individual, social, and health outcomes. For school professionals, participating in gratitude practices is also positively associated with better and more fulfilling work engagement and lower rates of burnout (Nicuță et al., 2022).

Three Ways to Practice Gratitude Year-Round

  • Reflect: Take time and reflect on your year, the last month, or just the last day. Consider all of the moments, decisions, and connections that have gone right.
  • Journal: Gratitude journaling is a common way to start keeping track of people or experiences you are thankful for. Writing for a few minutes a day can make a big difference in your perspectives on family, life, and even the world.
  • Give Back: Volunteering or donating can be a way to share your gratitude for your community.

Encouraging Gratitude and Mindfulness in Students

We, as educators can also encourage our students to practice mindfulness and gratitude. These skills can be incorporated into SEL skills lessons, or they can be themes that we can draw connections to throughout this season. We can also teach these skills by modeling them: give thanks and praise when students are doing well, appreciate the present, and ensure we provide students with positive feedback so they can learn how to support others.

Explore More SEL Resources

For more training on SEL and self-care, explore our SEL Learning Modules or check out our Self-Care Learning Modules for school personnel.

 

Reference(s):

Allen, S. (2018). The science of gratitude [White paper]. Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley. https://ggsc.berkeley.edu/images/uploads/GGSC-JTF_White_Paper-Gratitude-FINAL.pdf

Braun, S. S., Roeser, R. W., Mashburn, A. J., & Skinner, E. (2019). Middle school teachers’ mindfulness, occupational health and well-being, and the quality of teach-student interactions.. Mindfulness, 10(2), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0968-2

Nicuță, E. G., Diaconu-Gherasim, L. R., & Constantin, T. (2023). How trait gratitude relates to teachers’ burnout and work engagement: Job demands and resources as mediators. Current Psychology, 42, 30338–30347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04086-8

Implementing MTSS in Secondary Schools: A Guide to Using the Lippit-Knoster Model for Managing Complex Change

Published on October 12, 2024
Graphic breaking down the Lippitt-Knoster Model.
Caredda, S. (2020). The Lippitt-Knoster Model for Managing Complex Change.

Implementing a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) in secondary schools can be challenging but rewarding, and it can offer comprehensive benefits to students and staff. The Lippit-Knoster Model for Managing Complex Change provides a systematic guide for MTSS implementation by focusing on six essential elements: vision, consensus, skills, incentives, resources, and an action plan. Addressing each of these components can eliminate common obstacles to change and foster a supportive school environment (Knoster, 1991; Reynolds, 2023).

Why MTSS Matters in Secondary Education

Secondary schools have unique challenges when it comes to MTSS implementation, including the complexity of student needs and a more rigid schedule with multiple class transitions. MTSS offers a structured approach to address these, benefiting students academically, behaviorally, and socially. Below, we outline how each element of the Lippit-Knoster Model applies to MTSS in secondary settings, with practical steps and resources.

Vision: Establishing Purpose and Scope

A well-defined, shared vision is foundational to MTSS success. As Jimerson, Burns, and VanDerHeyden (2016) emphasize, an unclear vision can hinder MTSS implementation, especially in high schools that have complex student needs. For instance, a high school’s MTSS vision might focus on reducing dropout rates, increasing graduation rates, or supporting student mental health. Aligning MTSS with school goals ensures the MTSS model is tailored to student needs, so its outcomes will be impactful.

Resource Spotlight: The Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education’s MTSS resources offer exemplary guidance on implementing MTSS, which can be customized to individual school priorities (Briesch et al., 2020).

Consensus: Building a Collaborative Culture

Achieving consensus is vital for fostering a collaborative environment in which teachers, students, parents, and administrators support MTSS goals. An effective strategy for building consensus is “data storytelling,” which frames school data in meaningful ways. Visual and narrative presentations of data can help convey the purpose and benefits of MTSS and can help build a shared understanding and commitment (Curry, 2021).

Resource Spotlight: Edutopia’s guide to consensus-building strategies for school leaders provides frameworks for creating data stories that resonate with diverse audiences. Education Week created charts are based on Panorama’s State of MTSS 2023 Survey. Consider using these as the foundation, along with your school’s data, to tell your MTSS story.

Skills: Equipping Educators for MTSS Success

Equipping educators with the right skills is essential for the effective implementation of MTSS, which relies on a set of specific competencies across various roles within the school. These include skills in using data analysis, identifying and administering tiered interventions, and adapting instruction to meet diverse student needs. The Lippit-Knoster Model emphasizes that having the necessary skills can help to relieve staff anxiety and uncertainty, which are common barriers to successful MTSS adoption. A well-structured professional development program that is tailored to MTSS competencies can ensure educators feel confident and prepared to apply MTSS effectively in the classroom.

Resource Spotlight: The MTSS training series by School Resources to Support Military-Connected Students offers short, focused MTSS training sessions that are helpful for working with diverse student populations.

Incentives: Motivating Engagement and Participation

Offering incentives can help foster engagement with MTSS by highlighting its positive impacts on school culture and student outcomes. For example, using Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), which aligns with MTSS principles, can demonstrate how structured support may decrease disciplinary incidents and enhance the school climate. Studies like Elrod et al. (2021) show that PBIS’s focus on positivity and support correlates with fewer behavior incidents and improved teacher buy-in.

Resource Spotlight: Data from studies, such as those on PBIS effectiveness, can serve as incentives for educators by illustrating the tangible benefits of MTSS implementation.

Resources: Ensuring Comprehensive Support Systems

A successful MTSS model requires a strategic alignment of resources to support students and educators across all tiers of intervention. The Lippit-Knoster Model emphasizes the importance of accessible resources and notes that missing resources can lead to frustration and implementation challenges. According to Reynolds (2023), schools that prioritize strategic resource planning experience smoother MTSS integration and encourage staff to remain focused on student outcomes rather than logistical issues.

Resource Spotlight: The Continuum of Evidence by the Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness at Penn State is a helpful tool that categorizes interventions by efficacy and target demographics. Additionally, evidence-based intervention platforms such as What Works Clearinghouse and Evidence for ESSA provide rigorous evaluations of interventions, allowing schools to select the most effective, research-backed programs.

Action Plan: Charting a Path for Sustainable MTSS Implementation

Creating and using a detailed action plan can be essential for sustaining MTSS implementation. The MTSS Center’s planning guides for middle and high schools outline critical considerations and offer guiding questions tailored to each educational level. These documents are helpful for planning phases, structuring interventions, and evaluating progress, which can help to ensure MTSS remains adaptable to school-specific needs.

Resource Spotlight: The MTSS Center’s action plan documents help organize implementation strategies that are tailored to meet the unique needs of middle schools and high schools.

Summary: Using the Lippit-Knoster Model to successfully implement an MTSS framework

The Lippit-Knoster Model provides a structured framework for managing MTSS implementation in secondary schools. Addressing vision, consensus, skills, incentives, resources, and action plans helps establish a robust foundation for MTSS that can be sustained over time. When fully implemented, MTSS improves student academic and behavioral outcomes and fosters a positive, inclusive school environment where students and staff thrive together.

Next Steps and Resources

Ready to implement MTSS? The MTSS Check-Up is a flexible toolkit that allows school personnel to create an MTSS framework that is effective for their needs.

Have you tried implementing MTSS at your school? Share your experiences and insights with us here.

Reference(s):

Briesch, A. M., Chafouleas, S. M., Nissen, K., & Long, S. (2020). A review of state-level procedural guidance for implementing multitiered systems of support for behavior (MTSS-B). Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 22(3), 131-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300719884707

Curry, V. (2021, April 21). A consensus-building strategy for school leaders. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/consensus-building-strategy-school-leaders

Durrance, S. (2023). Implementing MTSS in secondary schools: Challenges and strategies. Comprehensive Center Network. https://region6cc.uncg.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/ImplementingMTSSinSecondarySchools_2022_RC6_003.pdf

Elrod, B. G., Rice, K. G., & Meyers, J. (2021). PBIS fidelity, school climate, and student discipline: A longitudinal study of secondary schools. Psychology in the Schools, 59(2), 318-335. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22614

Jimerson, S.R., Burns, M.K., & VanDerHeyden, A.M. (2016). Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (2nd ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7568-3

Reynolds, K. B. (2023). Implementation of a multi-tiered system of supports in public schools to improve student behavior indicators and mental health (Doctoral dissertation, Southern Nazarene University). ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2809324280