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What Street-Level Bureaucracy Can Teach Us About the Purple Star Schools Program

Published on December 13, 2025
School students standing in front of an American flag.

Schools play an essential role in the lives of military-connected students who face frequent moves, disrupted friendships, and shifting school expectations. Many states now use the Purple Star Schools Program (PSSP) to recognize schools that put strong supports in place. But implementation of the PSSP varies widely, and educators often ask: How can we make PSSP meaningful in our building, not just another compliance task?

One useful lens comes from Michael Lipsky’s book The Street-Level Bureaucracy: The Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service (1980). Lipsky studied how frontline workers translate policies into real-world practice. His insights help explain why PSSP sometimes thrives and sometimes feels symbolic. His insights can be applied to PSSP to identify practical steps schools can take to strengthen their support for military-connected students.

Why Lipsky’s Ideas Matter for Schools

Lipsky argued that people who work directly with the public shape how policy is actually experienced. Teachers, counselors, registrars, and administrators make hundreds of decisions a day while experiencing large workloads, limited time, and unclear expectations. According to Lipsky, this environment can, naturally, lead to discretion, shortcuts, coping strategies, and uneven implementation.

If you work in a school, this situation probably sounds familiar.

Two recent Clearinghouse reports (2024 report, 2025 report) on the PSSP found similar patterns. Many schools show exceptional effort to welcome military families. Others end up meeting only the minimum requirements. When school professionals can view these patterns not as failures but as predictable conditions, they are better able to make smarter, more sustainable choices.

  1. Coping Happens: Use It to Strengthen, Not Weaken, Support

Lipsky observed that when demands exceed capacity, frontline workers develop coping routines to stay afloat.

This situation is evident in PSSP implementation as many schools meet the requirement for a webpage or point of contact (POC) but struggle to sustain peer-to-peer programs or ongoing check-ins.

What you can do:

  • Build routines that support real connection.
    Examples of this can include using automatic welcome emails to new families, scheduling check-ins at 2 and 6 weeks, or creating a standing time on Fridays to update your military-resources page.
  • Avoid one-time gestures.
    Schools often create a basic webpage or hang a Purple Star banner to “check the box.” Use these as starting points to create a connection—not final steps.
  • Share responsibilities.
    No single person can handle all of the PSSP responsibilities. Identify a small team (administrator, counselor, teacher, and office staff member), and divide tasks.
  1. Your Decisions Shape the Program

Lipsky described frontline workers as policy makers because their day-to-day decisions determine what policy looks like.

This concept surfaces clearly with PSSP. Many states require each school to have a POC who is expected to answer questions related to supporting military-connected students; however, many states do not define this role, so schools must fill in the gaps. How you interpret and fulfill this requirement can determine whether families feel supported.

What you can do:

  • Clarify the role locally.
    Even if your state’s language regarding this requirement is vague, clearly define expectations at your school, and examples of these include the following:

    • Respond to new family inquiries within 48 hours
    • Oversee transition activities
    • Coordinate with the district POC for military families or the installation school liaison
    • Update the military family webpage each quarter
  • Invite student voice early.
    Without mechanisms for requesting and collecting student feedback, schools will lack insight regarding whether peer programs meet real needs. Ask military-connected students what tasks or activities helped them adapt effectively during a transition, and what tasks or activities did not help them. This avoids guessing and prevents inequities from continuing.
  • Treat the Purple Star designation as a school culture effort.
    Use this designation to start conversations about belonging and transitions, not just compliance.
  1. Rationing Is Real: Watch for Unintentional Inequity

Lipsky also highlighted rationing, which happens when schools must decide how to use limited time, resources, and attention. In these situations, educators often focus on families who are easiest to reach or most proactive.

This happens in PSSP, too.

For example, staff may prioritize families who email proactively or attend orientation events, while families who are dealing with deployment stress or housing instability may receive less support simply because they are harder to reach. This type of normative rationing is unintentional, but it is real.

What you can do:

  • Create outreach routines that do not rely on family initiative.
    For example:

    • Produce a welcome script for front-office staff to use
    • Use automatic referrals to the school POC based on enrollment data
    • Initiate programmed check-ins for all new students
  • Make peer programs sustainable.
    Including student voice is key. Ask students to co-design activities or mentor structures. When students become involved and provide input, programs often increase momentum and sustainability.
  • Track who is accessing support.
    Collect simple tallies to help you determine if anyone is being missed.
  1. Reduce Ambiguity Where You Can

When assessing PSSP across all states, Clearinghouse researchers found major variability in PSSP requirements and very little enforcement. This lack of guidance leaves schools to interpret the program on their own.

Lipsky noted that when direction is vague, individuals disseminating a program use more discretion and personal judgment.

What you can do:

  • Standardize the basics.
    Agree on the following:

    • Determine what information must be included on your resource webpage
    • Establish how your peer program will function
    • Organize and communicate what information teachers should know about the Interstate Compact and enrollment issues
  • Keep room for local adaptation.
    Excessive standardization may reduce responsiveness, especially in rural schools with limited staff or in buildings with high turnover. The goal for employing PSSP is clarity, not rigidity.
  • Create simple job aids.
    Develop and use quick reference sheets to help staff make consistent decisions.
  1. Strengthen Feedback and Evaluation

The Clearinghouse reports show limited quantitative data on how PSSP affects student outcomes.

This lack of evidence reinforces Lipsky’s prediction that, when formal metrics are weak, discretion, not policy, guides practice. Schools end up assuming a program works rather than knowing if the program works.

What you can do:

  • Ask students and families directly.
    Ask the following two questions:

    • “What tasks or activities made your transition easier?”
    • “What tasks or activities would you change for the next new student?”
      Using this simple feedback loop can help improve your system.
  • Track a few indicators.
  • Use what you learn.
    Even using small adjustments that come from feedback can reduce inequities and cut down on rationing.
  1. Build Capacity, Not Burnout

Educators want to support military students, but time and staffing limits are real. Lipsky reveals that burnout and overload can shape implementation as much as policy design.

What you can do:

  • Advocate for time.
    Ask your principal to include POC duties in official schedules or give release time for key tasks.
  • Use teams instead of individuals.
    Spread responsibilities to reduce stress on a single person.
  • Integrate PSSP with existing work.
    Include military-connected student needs in your Multi-Tiered Systems of Support framework, school climate initiatives, or counseling protocols so the work is not a separate add-on.

Final Thoughts

Lipsky’s work shows that people, not policies, determine how effectively programs operate. For the PSSP, this means the most important factor is not the banner at the school entrance but the daily choices made by educators who welcome new families, run peer programs, and connect students to support. By establishing clear routines, asking for and using student voice, and incorporating small but steady structures, schools can make PSSP meaningful even within real constraints.

Reference(s):

  Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness. (2023). State implementation of four initiatives to support military-connected students. https://militaryfamilies.psu.edu/wp-content/uploads/clearinghouse_report_speakmc_initiatives_20240220rev-2.pdf

Clearinghouse for Military Family Readiness. (2024). An implementation evaluation of four initiatives intended to support military-connected children’s educational success. https://militaryfamilies.psu.edu/wp-content/uploads/clearinghouse_report_speakmc_initiatives_20240919_final-2.pdf

Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. Russell Sage Foundation.

 

Classroom Rituals for a Calm Winter Season

Published on December 12, 2025
Male teacher sitting at table with young students

The countdown to winter break can be a mix of excitement and waning patience for students and teachers. Schedules shift, attention spans shrink, and classroom energy rises. During this hectic season, educators should uphold consistent routines and implement thoughtful rituals to help maintain a sense of calm and purpose. A structured classroom can support continued learning and safeguard teachers’ well-being. When teachers use some advance planning, they create an atmosphere in which students are better able to focus, and they set up learning environments that boost post-break success.

Maintain routines and expectations.

Interruptions to routines are a common challenge during this time of year. Routines help students prepare for learning tasks and transitions, as well as understand how to behave during classroom activities; however, these practices can be disrupted by special events and adjusted schedules. When seasonal events disrupt routines, teachers may be tempted to assign busywork or introduce other low-energy activities, but these tasks may not provide enough rigor for students to take their learning seriously. Conversely, teachers may want to capitalize on the impending excitement and introduce stimulating projects, presentations, and experiential learning. However, this type of activity could give students too much leeway and create a disruptive situation. In fact, a good strategy for managing energetic students and changing schedules is to maintain the same expectations and provide the same level of academic rigor as usual. Teachers should not lower their expectations to match student behavior or become stricter in response to disorderly behaviors; instead, they should maintain their normal routines and classroom management procedures.

In order to maximize learning in the days leading up to a break, teachers can clearly restate their classroom rules and expectations and follow through with applying consequences when necessary. Additionally, they should continue to offer a variety of challenging, standard learning activities, as students who are engaged in appropriate work are less likely to misbehave. Finally, teachers can make a plan for managing changes to routines and communicate this plan to students. What activities will take place during short periods? Are there any class periods when students will do activities that are different from the usual?

Support Military-Connected Students During the Holiday Season

As routines shift, the winter holidays can bring added stress or emotional complexity to military-connected students—especially those experiencing deployment, training absences, or other separations from a parent.

Educators can strengthen classroom calm and connection by integrating small, thoughtful practices:

  • Acknowledge deployment-aware needs. Teachers who are aware of a deployment (within OPSEC limits) can be more intentional about support. Understanding the deployment situation can help educators anticipate emotional fluctuations, hesitation during celebrations, or an increased need for reassurance (Seasons of My Military Student, n.d.).
  • Offer “sendable” or shareable holiday activities. When planning seasonal work, consider activities that students can share with a deployed parent, such as digital cards, photos, class videos, or simple flat items that can be mailed. These alternatives help military-connected students feel included and give them meaningful ways to stay connected to their away parent (Seasons of My Military Student, n.d.).
  • Provide flexible participation options. If families are invited to attend a classroom event, students with a deployed parent may appreciate alternatives, such as inviting another trusted adult or allowing the absent parent to participate virtually through a recorded message or brief video call when possible.
  • Create space for feelings and reassurance. Some students may feel sadness, guilt, or mixed emotions about celebrating while a parent is far away. To help students stay regulated and connected to their away parent, teachers could invite optional check-ins, validate students’ feelings, and encourage simple ways to help their students share experiences with the absent parent.

These strategies do not replace academic rigor or routines. Instead, they enrich the classroom environment with stability, empathy, and awareness of the diverse experiences students carry into the winter season.

Protect your own well-being.

Teacher exhaustion and burnout are challenges that can occur any time of year but may be more prevalent before winter break, and a teacher’s attitude, positive or negative, can negatively affect the classroom climate. Changing schedules and increased student energy can impact teachers’ mental health. Prioritizing professional self-help can help teachers maintain momentum, prioritize tasks that are important to them, and create more time for self-care. Teachers can engage in professional self-care by re-focusing on their “why” and reminding themselves that their work is meaningful and vital. They should make sure to celebrate small victories; respond to tough days and mistakes with self-compassion; and set boundaries to control what is controllable, such as defining work hours and attending special events outside of school.

Creating calm through stability and intention.

December will likely be a bit chaotic for school professionals, but maintaining intentional classroom rituals such as using morning check-ins, assigning challenging work, and continuing structured transitions can help create stability and help students maintain focus. These practices remind students that even in hectic times, the classroom remains a consistent, welcoming place. By maintaining clear expectations, anchoring your classroom in predictable routines, and supporting your own professional well-being, you can help students navigate the excitement of the season while preserving calm and connection. These small, intentional practices can make a big difference, not only leading up to winter break, but also during any breaks or disruptions.

You can learn more about maintaining rigorous expectations, maximizing structure and predictability, professional self-care, and more on the learning modules page of the School Resources website.

Reference(s):

Seasons of My Military Student. (n.d.). Holidays during deployment. https://seasonsofmymilitarystudent.com/holidays-during-deployment 

Understanding Well-Being and Suicide Risk Among Military-Connected Teens

Published on November 5, 2025
Back of student with backpack at school.

The 2024 Military Teen Experience Survey (MTES) offers important insight into the mental health and resilience of military-connected youth. The findings show how family circumstances, such as parental injury, illness, or deployment, shape the emotional well-being of these students. For educators and school staff, understanding these patterns is an essential step toward recognizing risk, responding with empathy, and strengthening the supports that help students thrive.

What the Data Show

The MTES included 1,634 military-connected youth ages 13–24. Nearly three-quarters said their parent had a service-connected wound, illness, or injury. The survey used validated tools to assess well-being, suicide risk, and food security, offering a detailed view of how military life experiences influence youth mental health.

Only 8 percent of military teens reported high well-being, 57 percent reported moderate, and 35 percent reported low. In the general population, about 75 percent of youth report moderate well-being and 25 percent fall into the high or low categories combined. Lower well-being was closely linked to parental injury, food insecurity, active-duty or dual-military status, and frequent deployments.

Suicide Ideation and Self-Harm

Twelve percent of military-connected teens reported suicidal thoughts within the past month. Most of these youth had also thought about how they might end their lives, felt intent to act, or made plans. About 45 percent said they had self-harmed at least once, and nearly one-third had done so repeatedly in the past six months. For comparison, national surveys suggest that approximately 22 percent of U.S. high school students have seriously considered suicide and around 10 percent have attempted it in the past year. The rates reported by military-connected youth indicate a heightened level of distress that warrants focused attention and support.

The Role of Parental Injury

Youth from families affected by military-related parental injury were more than ten times as likely to report low well-being and twelve times as likely to engage in self-harm. When a parent’s injury changes daily routines or limits family functioning, children may experience emotional strain, uncertainty, and grief. Schools can play a vital role in offering stability and connection during these times.

What Schools Can Do

Educators are often the first to notice shifts in a student’s mood, attendance, or engagement. A consistent, caring response can make a lasting difference. Schools can:

  1. Strengthen understanding of the Impact of Parental Injuries and Death on Children and how to provide support for children and families experiencing parental injury and death with compassion and sensitivity.
  2. Learn to identify risk factors of student suicide and warning signs and stressful precipitating events of student suicide to better recognize when a student may need help.
  3. Use structured approaches based on suicide risk assessment best practices and follow clear protocols for handling suspected suicide risk to ensure safety and coordinated response.

Moving Forward

Military-connected youth demonstrate remarkable strength, but their well-being can be deeply influenced by the demands and disruptions of military life. Schools play a crucial role in helping them build resilience, manage stress, and maintain hope.

The MTES also found that nearly half of military-connected teens said they want to serve in the military as adults, compared to less than 10 percent of teens in the general population who expressed that same interest. Supporting the well-being of these youth today not only helps them thrive now but also contributes to the future readiness and strength of the all-volunteer force.

For more information and access to the full suite of training modules, visit our complete learning module library.

Reference(s):

National Military Family Association. (2024). Through their eyes: 2024 Military Teen Experience Survey results. https://www.militaryfamily.org/through-their-eyes-2024-military-teen-experience-survey-results/

Well-Being for Students Starts with Teachers

Published on
Portrait of mid adult teacher woman at school

As we settle into the rhythm of the 2025-26 school year, much of the focus is on meeting students’ academic, behavioral, and emotional needs. A growing focus is on student well-being, because it affects all other aspects of learning and development. When students feel emotionally safe, connected, and supported, they are more able to focus, engage, and persevere through challenges. Conversely, when students experience chronic stress or emotional distress, their ability to learn and regulate behavior diminishes. Prioritizing student well-being is not at odds with academic skills; it actually makes learning possible.

While student well-being is important, one of the most powerful influences on student well-being may be being ignored: the well-being of teachers themselves. When teachers are able to show up as their best selves, they can model appropriate attitudes and coping skills, helping students learn what it means to be a successful person. Well-regulated teachers can also lend their regulated nervous systems to dysregulated students in a process called co-regulation, where someone who is calm can help regulate someone in distress by offering assistance, as well as by modeling calmness (Salamon, 2024). Research shows that teachers with higher levels of well-being tend to have students who also exhibit higher levels of well-being. So, when it comes to improving student outcomes, where is the focus on teacher well-being?

Why Teacher Well-Being Matters

Students notice more than some realize. They pick up on teachers’ moods, stress levels, and emotional tone. When teachers feel calm, supported, and confident, students are more likely to mirror those emotions. In contrast, chronic stress or burnout can unintentionally impact classroom dynamics, resulting in increased tension and decreased engagement.

According to research, having good relationships with teachers and teachers showing positive behavior towards students is one of the main factors that can affect students’ levels of well-being at school (Horanicova et al., 2024). It makes sense that when teachers try to invest in good relationships with students, outcomes improve. Higher levels of teacher well-being are associated with higher levels of student well-being and lower levels of student psychological distress, and better teacher-student relationships further improve these outcomes (Harding et al., 2019). The opposite was also found to be true: when teachers are depressed, students’ well-being and psychological health suffer.

Building Relationships

One of the most supportive things teachers can do to improve student well-being is to invest in developing positive relationships with students. This can be done by spending a small amount of time with a challenging student every day, greeting students every day as they enter the classroom, and making sure that students receive more positive than negative feedback throughout their time with you. When students have better relationships with teachers, they may be more regulated, focused, or motivated. However, teachers can only lend students what they have, so teachers must make their own social and mental health a priority.

Focusing on Teacher Mental Health and Well-Being

Working on your relationships with students is helpful, but not the whole picture. Making sure that you are taking care of yourself can let students know that you can provide a stable foundation for them to use for support. Teachers can focus on their well-being and mental health by setting boundaries around work and maintaining realistic workloads, creating support networks, and investing in personal and professional self-care.

A Culture of Collective Well-Being

Ultimately, student well-being is the product of a collective effort. Schools that prioritize positive relationships and emotional health and well-being create environments where both educators and students can thrive.

Reference(s):

Harding, S., Morris, R., Gunnell, D., Ford, T., Hollingworth, W., Tilling, K., Evans, R., Bell, S., Grey, J., Brockman, R., Campbell, R., Araya, R., Murphy, S., & Kidger, J. (2019). Is teachers’ mental health and wellbeing associated with students’ mental health and wellbeing? Journal of Affective Disorders, 242, 180–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.080

Horanicova, S., Husarova, D., Madarasova Geckova, A., Lackova Rebicova, M., Sokolova, L., deWinter, A. F., & Reijneveld, S. (2024). Adolescents’ wellbeing at school: what helps and what hinders from feeling safe and satisfied? International Journal of Public Health, 69. https://doi.org/10.3389/ijph.2024.1607244

Salamon, M. (2024). Co-regulation: Helping children and teens navigate big emotions. Harvard Health Blog. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/co-regulation-helping-children-and-teens-navigate-big-emotions-202404033030

When PBIS Becomes the Goal Instead of the Guide: 80-Year-Old Sociology Lessons for Schools

Published on October 13, 2025
School teacher smiling to schoolgirls sitting at desk using digital tablet, explaining and laughing

Most educators agree that using Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is most beneficial when these supports provide assistance to schools that is predictable, fair, and supportive. However, when PBIS becomes the focus for educators, PBIS’ impact wanders from what these supports were designed to do—support students.

Robert Merton, a sociologist, wrote about this kind of drift taking place in bureaucracies in 1940. His ideas can still be applied today to show why well-intentioned school frameworks sometimes lose their way.

When Rules Become the Goal

Merton described a concept called “goal displacement,” which happens when organizations become so focused on following the rules that they forget why those rules exist. In PBIS, goal displacement can happen when educators spend more energy filling out Office Discipline Referrals (ODRs), entering data, or checking boxes on a fidelity tool than helping students learn the behaviors those systems are meant to support.

Using fidelity tools such as the Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) is important for ensuring schools apply PBIS practices consistently and with quality. The challenge comes when fidelity becomes the destination rather than the guide. The goal of PBIS fidelity measures is to improve outcomes for students and not to perfect paperwork. When completing forms or reports begins to take priority over impact, professionals must step back because PBIS will then begin to serve the system instead of the students. An audit may show that all practices have been implemented, but real classroom issues may remain unresolved.

Defensive Compliance: Playing It Safe Instead of Doing What’s Right

Merton also warned about engaging in “defensive compliance.” In PBIS, this can occur when staff members carry out the visible parts of the system without pursuing the purpose that supports the system parts. For example, a teacher might hand out the required number of tokens or tickets each week simply to meet an expectation, but they may not be pairing the reinforcements with specific, behavior-linked praise. The form of the strategy is there, but the function is lost. Students notice when recognition feels routine and not genuine, and the motivational impact will fade.

This type of situation is not necessarily a sign of poor teaching; however, it may be a sign that the system is too rigid. When educators feel they must choose between taking actions that are helpful for a student and taking actions that are required by policy, the system is no longer working, and it may need recalibration.

Trained Incapacity: When the Script Replaces Judgment

Another one of Merton’s ideas, “trained incapacity,” describes what happens when professionals become so accustomed to procedures that they stop trusting their own judgment. In PBIS, trained incapacity might look like a teacher publicly recognizing a student for positive behavior, because the system emphasizes visible reinforcement, even though the teacher knows the student is uncomfortable receiving public attention. The intention to stay true to the model is good. Fidelity still matters. But when fidelity overshadows flexibility, educators can feel trapped and frustrated, and students may not receive the support they need.

Re-Centering PBIS on Purpose

If these types of concepts and examples exist in a school, this does not mean PBIS is broken. In fact, Merton might argue that these challenges appear because schools care deeply about implementing PBIS correctly. The solution is to ensure the structure serves the mission.

Here are some strategies school leaders and teams can use to re-center PBIS in their schools:

  • Focus audits on impact, not paperwork. Ask, “Are interventions helping students succeed?” rather than “Are all forms complete?”
  • Empower professional judgment. Give teachers permission to adapt supports when the situation warrants this.
  • Keep the purpose visible. Remind staff regularly that PBIS is about connection, consistency, and care, and not compliance.
  • Use data wisely. Data should illuminate challenges and not dictate responses. Numbers help tell the story, but they are not the story itself.

The Takeaway

Robert Merton, who wrote in 1940 about bureaucracies, captured lessons that still echo in today’s classrooms. His ideas remind us that systems can be our greatest asset and our greatest distraction. When procedures start to overshadow purpose, even the most effective frameworks can lose their intention and diminish implementers’ and recipients’ benefits and motivation.

Using fidelity when implementing any supports or programs always matters. Adhering to fidelity can help ensure professionals deliver the practices consistently and equitably, and the PBIS practices are grounded in evidence. However, remember, fidelity, though vital, should guide, not govern. The art of delivering PBIS lies in pairing structure with sound judgment and authentic connection.

Eighty years later, Merton’s message persists: when people remember why the system exists, the system often works. The real success of PBIS is not found in charts or checklists—it is reflected in classrooms where students feel noticed, supported, and capable of doing their best.